分词

现在分词和过去分词作形容词的差别

现在分词表主动+发生原因，翻译为”令人…”
过去分词表被动+结果状态，翻译为”感到…；受到…”
The question confused me.
- The question is confusing. 这个问题是令人困惑的。
- I am confused by the question. 我被这个问题弄糊涂了。
This toy interests me.
- This toy is interesting. 这个玩具非常有趣。
- I am interested in the toy. 我对这个玩具感兴趣。

动名词

一些 to (作为介词) 后接动名词的表达：
- be committed to doing 尽心尽力做某事
- be dedicated to doing 献身于…
- be decided to doing 决心做某事
- be devoted to doing 致力于做某事
- be opposed to doing 反对做某事
- be used to doing 习惯于做某事
- be accustomed to doing 习惯于做某事
- look forward to doing 期待做某事
- object to doing 反对做某事

主谓一致

单数名词+单数谓语、复数名词+复数谓语
- 使用单数谓语的主语
  - 不可数名词
  - one of the (所有格) + 复数名词
  - each/every + 单数名词
  - the number of(数字) + 复数名词
  - 以复数形式出现的国家、机关、团体名称，如 United States
  - 专有名词 (-s 结尾的企业名称)
  - none of the + 复数名词
- 使用复数谓语的主语
  - the+形容词(表示一类人)
  - some (of)+复数名词
  - a lot of/a number of + 复数名词
  - two-thirds + 复数名词
主语+介词短语+谓语：主语后面的介词短语中出现的名词并不属于句子的主语成分，丝毫不影响主语和谓语的一致
- The manufacturer of these disposable cameras guarantees that the quality of materials will last well over a year.
先行词+关系代词+谓语：关系代词在定语从句中作主语时，其后的谓语应与先行词的单复数保持一致。
- 单数名词+关系代词(作主语)+单数谓语
  - John Smith wants to grow up and be a politician who makes his country more prosperous.
- 复数名词+关系代词(作主语)+复数谓语
  - Peter works closely with sales people who manage orders from production to delivery.
指示代词、不定代词与名词的一致：名词前有指示代词、不定代词时，人称和数的一致规则如下：
- 单数指示代词(this/that)+名词单数
- 复数指示代词(these/those)+名词复数
不定代词：
- many/several/all/some + 名词复数
- another/other + 名词单数

反义疑问句

反义疑问句表达提问的人对前面叙述的事实不敢肯定，需要向对方加以证实。

基本结构：陈述句,简单问句。
疑问部分的人称、数和时态等方面要和陈述部分保持一致。
一般为”前肯后否”或”前否后肯”。
回答时，直接对疑问句回答
回答分两部分，”Yes/No, xxx”，这两部分前后逻辑要完全一致。这与中文不同，中文前面的”Yes/No”和英文的相反。

They don’t work hard, do they(work hard)? 他们工作不努力，是吗？ Yes, they do. 不，他们工作努力。 No, they don’t. 是的，他们工作不努力。

注意中文前面的表意词与英文正好相反，可以利用中文理解快速做反向选择

时态

TOEIC 中对于考时态的情况，往往句子会包含一些不认识的单词，但实际上只要识别出关键的表达时间的词直接选答案就可以了。

一般现在时

这里强调一般，有三种情况：
- 简单的
  - Rabbits eat carrots.
- 默认的(习惯/客观事实)
  - The sun rises in the east.
- 普通的

一般将来时

非常确定将来会发生的事。

现在进行时

表示现在正在进行的动作或存续的状态

现在进行时的场合：
1. 句中出现表示时间的词是 now, at the moment，表示现在正在发生的事。
  - Linda’s brother is watching TV in his bedroom now.
2. 当句子中出现的时间状语是 these days, this week, this month, this term 等，表示这一段时间正在发生的事。
  - These days we are helping the farmers work on the farm.
3. 在句中出现了 look, listen, can’t you see? 等暗示词时，说明后面谓语动词的动作正在发生。
  - Look! Maria and Tom are dancing under the tree.
现在进行时动词词尾变化规则：
- 一般在动词末尾加 ing。如：
  - read + ing -> reading 读
  - listen + ing -> listening 听
- 以不发音字母 e 结尾的动词，先去掉 e，再加 ing。如：
  - make -> - e + ing -> making 做
  - write -> - e + ing -> writing 写
- 以重读闭音节结尾的动词，中间只有一个元音字母，词尾只有一个辅音字母，应双写末尾的辅音字母，再加 ing。如：
  - run -> + n + ing -> running 跑步
  - swim -> + m + ing -> swimming 游泳
  - 反面示例：
    - wait -> waiting，因为有两个元音字母ai
- 以 ie 结尾的动词，变 ie 为 y，再加 ing。如：
  - tie -> ie 变 y + ing -> tying 系
  - die -> ie 变 y + ing -> dying 死
- 以 l 结尾的动词，如果动词原形以非重读音节结尾，则末尾的字母 l 双写或不双写均可。其中不双写的是美式拼写。如：
  - travel -> travelling/traveling(U.S.)

现在完成时(have + 过去分词)

表示过去的一个动作到现在还持续有影响。

关键词
- in the past year(s)
- for the pass two years
- for the last two months
- over the last three years
- during the last year
- throughout the year
- recently/lately/just/already/since
- so far/up to now/up to the present
例题：The demand for exports risen/has risen steadily throughout the year, which led to a corresponding increase in our gross annual profit.

过去完成时(had + 过去分词)

在过去所发生的两个事件中，先发生的事用过去完成时表示。

John had already left by the time Peter got there.
例题：Our competitors believed that the products they have developed/had developed were able to surpass the standards we set for durability and design.
- 看到believed，则后面用过去完成时，选had developed

将来完成时(will have + 过去分词)

将来完成时表示过去或现在的动作会在将来的某个时间点完成，或影响会一直持续到那个时候。

Dr.Shelia Marchial will have served on the Board of West Coast College for 20 years by the time she retires.

主句与从句的时态一致

如果主句的时态是一般过去时，那么一般来说由从属连词所引导的从句也应该使用表示过去的几个时态。

Even before the warning was issued, Mr. Lee claimed responsibility for approving the purchase of the faulty equipment.
When the company was restructing its automobile division, the management had to solve many problems with the labor union.

时态不一致的特殊用法

时间状语从句与条件状语从句，用现在时代替将来时。主将从现

When you will finish/finish the training course, a certificate of attendance will be sent to your address.
If the software industry will collapse/collapse, many small firms will go bankrupt.
上面从句都应是一般现在时

主句中有表提议、主张、要求、命令等的动词时，that 从句中的动词用 should+原形

that 和 should 都可以省略
关键词:
- 提议：suggest/propose/advise/recommend
- 主张：insist/urge
- 要求：ask/demand/require/order/request
The property custodian has requested (that) any overdue equipment (should) be returned by the end of the week.
He suggested that she spent/spend the weekend with him.
- 这里选 (should)spend，原形

有表示”重要的、必需的、义务的”等含义的形容词时，that 从句中的动词用原形(省略 should)

关键词：
- difficult/mandatory(义务的)/vital
- imperative(强制的)/compulsory(义务的)
- important/necessary/essential
It is necessary that the contract is finalized/be finalized at least one week before the project begins.
- 答案：be finalized

虚拟语气

虚拟语气是一种委婉语，表示与现在事实相反的情况、与过去事实相反的情况、表示将来的某事实现的可能性不大。

假定与现在的事实相反，或者现在发生的可能性比较小

if + 主语 + 动词过去式，主语 + would/could/might + 动词原形
If more families lived near subway stations, they would use their private vehicle less often.

假定与过去的事实相反

if + 主语 + had + 动词过去式，主语 + would/could/might + have + 过去分词
If the office manager had been told that the fax machine was not working properly, she could have called the repair company earlier.

对将来的事能否实现表示强烈的怀疑

if + 主语 + 动词过去式/were to + 动词原形/should + 动词原形，主语 + will/can/may/would/could/might + 动词原形
If the president should not attend a meeting today, we will cancel the meeting.

在时间关系复杂的条件句中，发生在过去的事情一直影响到现在

if + 主语 + had + 过去分词(与过去的事实相反)
if + 主语 + would/could/might + have + 动词原形(与现在的事实相反)
If it had not snowed last night, the road would not be slippery now.
If I had eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be hungry now.
If John had follwed my advice, he wouldn’t be in such a difficult situation now.

特殊虚拟语气

与现在或将来的事实相反
- Without + 名词
- But for + 名词 + 主语 + would/should/could/might + 动词原形
- Were it not for + 名词
与过去的事实相反
- Without + 名词
- But for + 名词 + 主语 + would/should/could/might + 动词原形
- Had it not been + 名词

Without Andrew Dottin’s exceptional effort and expertise, we would never have succeeded in winning the prize.

在表示命令、建议、要求等一类动词的名词性从句中，往往使用虚拟语气，由”should+动词原形”构成，其中”should”可省略。

如：order/suggest/propose/require/demand/request,insist,command

I suggest that we (should) hold a meeting next week.

省略 if

在虚拟语气中，如果省略了 if，则剩下的部分要使用倒装语序。

与现在或将来的事实相反
- if + 主语 + 动词过去时 -> 过去式 + 主语
- Were I you, I would ask her for a date.
与过去的事实相反
- if + 主语 + had + 过去分词 -> had + 主语 + 过去分词
- Had the engine parts been delivered earlier, we might have been able to finish the job on time.

情态动词

情态动词后面都加动词原形。

情态动词有：
- should
- can
- shall
- would
- could
- may
- might
- have to
- must

动词不定式

动词不定式由”to+动词原形”构成，具有动词的性质，在句中可以作主语、宾语、补语、表语、状语、定语等。

可以接不定式作宾语的动词
- ask 要求 He asked to come with us.
- want 想要 I want to tell you something.
- agree/care/hope/learn/prepare/manage/decide/plan/deseve/promise/expect/refuse/fail/struggle/hesitate/arrange/consent
- 总结：可以接不定式作宾语的动词，都是一些及物动词，同时后面的宾语可以比较宽泛。
动词 + 宾语 + 不定式
- advise 建议 He advised me to wait until tomorrow.
- encourage/allow/expect/invite/ask/order/remind/force/tell/warn/instruct
be + 形容词 + 不定式
- be able to do 有能力做… I will be able to overcome my present problems.
- glad/unable/willing/liable/likely/eager/easy/reluctant/sorry
名词 + 不定式不定式像形容词一样起到修饰名词的作用
- time to do 做…的时间 It’s time to eat dinner.
形式主语 it 不定式作主语时，如果主语太长，可以将主语部分放到句子最后，用 it 作形式主语。
- It + 系动词 + difficult/possible/important + for 宾语 + 不定式
- It is neccessary for us to take measures to deal with the new situation.
- 上面等价于 To take measures to deal with the new situation is neccessary for us. 但这样”头重脚轻”，所以一般替换成前面的形式。
不定式的副词性用法不定式可以像副词一样修饰形容词、动词以及副词，表示目的、结果、原因等。
- 目的：为了…，为了…的目的 The document was revised to clarify ambiguous points.
- 结果：结果…；成为…
  - “only + 不定式” 表示出乎意料的结果
  - He lift a stone only to hit himself.
- 原因：由于…，因为…
  - “表示感情的形容词或动词 + 不定式” 表示产生某种情绪的原因。
  - I’m glad to meet you.
  - I’m sorry to bother you.

介词

介词表示名词、代词等与句中其它词的关系，在句中不能单独作句子成分。

in

通常用于不确定的、广泛的、概括性的时间和空间前。

其他情况
- in + 语言，in Chinese
- in + 报纸、杂志，in the newspaper
- in + 学科、专门领域、产业部门，in science
- in + 部门，in the accounting department
固定短语
- in one’s opinion
- in front of
- in the future
- in the middle of
- in the meantime
- in the rear of
- in danger of
- in the end
- in general
- in detail
- in particular
- in line
- in person
- in part
- in a row
- in time
- in the past
- in season/out of season
- in seesion/out of session
- in stock(有货)/out of stock
- in print(销售中)/out of print
特殊情况：
- I will be back in three days. 我三天(大概时间)后回来。
- I will be back within three days. 我三天之内回来。

on

除用在场所之前或固定短语之外，可用在确定性时间前。

时间、日期

on + 具体日期时间
on + 星期
on + 街道
on + 场所(强调接触、在表面上)

固定短语
- on foot
- on a business trip
- on vacation
- on sale
- on the market
- on schedule
- on a diet
- on duty
- on leave
- on a map
- on air 广播
- on the other hand
- on purpose
- on strike
- on top of
- on the wane 逐渐衰落
- on time 准时，in time 及时

at

表示特定的、限定的、具体的、狭隘的时间和场所

时间场所
- at 7:30, at noon, at midnight, at beginning
- at + 具体地址
- at + 具体场所

for

为了…

for free, for good(永远), for rent, for sale

by

不能与冠词一起使用

交通及通信方式
- by taxi
- by car
- by check
- by credit card
by + 动词，以…的方式
- Higher interest rates will decrease profits by raising borrowing costs.
by chance，固定搭配, 偶然，意外地
强调比较级、最高级的 by far，到目前为止
- She is by far the best female executive in the company.

by/unti

by 指特定时间前动作结束；until 指动作状态一直持续到某时

by = no late than
- The work must be done by the end of the week.
until The corner store is open until midnight.

despite/in spite of

不顾 + 名词/名词短语

Despite campaigns about the dangers of excessive drinking, most countries still see a steady in crease in the number so alcoholics.

becouse of / due to / thanks to / owing to + 名词/名词短语

因为…

concerning/regarding/regard to/with respect to/with reference to + 名词/名词短语

关于

连词

连词负责连接词与词、短语与短语、句子与句子。

并列连词

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

从属连词

表时间的从属连词 when, while, as, before, after, until, as soon as, whenever
表条件的从属连词 if, unless, in case, provided that
表原因的从属连词 because, since, as, now that
表让步和对比的从属连词 although/though, while, even if/even though
可引导名词性从句的连词 that, if, whether

代词

关系代词

先行词是人时用 who 或者 that，不能用 which，which 的先行词是物

英语基本句型分类

简单句 Simple Sentences，不能再拆分
复合句 Compound Sentences，不分主次
复杂句 Complex Sentences，主句+从句

基本句型：
- 主语+动词
- 主语+动词+宾语
- 主语+动词+间接宾语+直接宾语
- 主语+动词+宾语+(宾语)补语
- 主语+(系)动词+(主语)补语(表语)
- 其他成分还有：定语、状语、同位语

Clause 从句

从句是一个完整的句子，作为主句的某种成分起作用。

例：I saw that the rabbit ate a carrot.
- “I saw” 是主句(main clause)
- “that the rabbit ate a carrot” 是从句(subordinate clause)，作为主句的宾语成分
  - “that” 是从句的引导词
- 它们合在一起，可以分类为复杂句
根据从句在主句中的成分划分，从句三大类、六小类：
- 名词性从句
  - 主语从句
  - 表语从句
  - 宾语从句
  - 同位语从句
- 定语从句(形容词从句/关系从句)
- 状语从句(副词从句)

定语从句

这种从句相当于一个大的形容词，所以也叫形容词从句
在句中做定语，所以叫定语从句
由于定语从句前面要以关系词做引导，所以叫关系从句

思维方式

普通例句：
- The rabbit is eating a carrot.
- 兔子在吃一根萝卜.
增加定语：
- 兔子在吃一根我买来的胡萝卜
  - 在中文中会自然把”我买来的”作为”胡萝卜”的定语，每个定语都自动跟右边的名词自动结合
- The rabbit is eating a carrot that I bought.
  - 英文中需要关系词“that”代替先行词“carrot”放在另一个完整句子中作为补充说明。
优缺点：
- 中文优点是形式统一，但是较多定语时主句的词就会被隔开，如：一只几个月前就开始在 B 站上传视频专门教英语的讨人喜爱的兔子。
- 英文需要费事加关系词补充，但较多定语时仍然可以很快找到原主句的关键词(主谓宾)，如： This is a rabbit who started uploading videos since a few …
  - 另外英文这种结构也比较容易实现套娃结构，即从句中的词再次以从句补充说明

构成

关系代词引导的形容词从句：用 that/who/whom/whose/which 这些代词作为关系词引导形容词从句，只需要把关系词前置即可。

例 1：
- The rabbit is eating a carrot that I bought.
- 其从句原本可写为：I bought a carrot
- 替换名词为关系代词：I bought that
- 然后把关系代词前置：that I bought
- 最后把主句从句组合即可，这种引导方式的好处是从句中除了关系代词原本的词序不变
例 2：
- The teacher whom I saw yesterday is a rabbit.
- 从句原句：I saw the teacher yesterday
- 替换名词为关系代词：I saw whom yesterday
- 关系代词前置：whom I saw yesterday
- 最后按原顺序组合，除引导词外，主从句原词序不变

that 和 which 有时可以替换

如果先行词是唯一，必须用 that
- 例：Tha rabbit ate the largest carrot that I’ve ever seen.
如果先行词是多选一，可以用 which 或 that
- 例：The rabbit ate a carrot which I bought.
- 技巧：如果还可以用”which”提问对象，则说明多选一
- 如：which carrot you bought?

关系副词引导的形容词从句：

有些词的词性是副词，和之前代词作用相同，同样是代替前面的先行词引导定语从句，这些词就叫关系副词。

This was the place where the rabbit ate the carrot.
This is the reason why the rabbit ate the carrot.
That was the day when the rabbit ate the carrot for the first time.

关系副词可转为关系代词： 关系副词 = 介词 + 关系代词

This was the place at which the rabbit ate the carrot.
This is the reason for which the rabbit ate the carrot.
That was the day on which the rabbit ate the carrot for the first time.

限定性和非限定性

限定性定语从句：
- The rabbit ate the carrot which was on the table.
  - 定语从句限定 carrot 的范围/性质，”兔子吃的胡萝卜是桌子上的那个胡萝卜”
非限定性定语从句：
- The rabbit ate the carrot, which was on the the table.
- 等价于：The rabbit ate the carrot, the carrot was on the table.
- 从句只相当于省略了前面相同的词”the carrot”，没有限定作用，直接去掉对主句也无影响
which 可做非限性或限性定语从句的引导词，也就是前面可以有”,”；that 只能做限定定语的引导词；
非限定性定语从句可能指代整句话
- The rabbit ate the carrot, which was not surprising.

主语从句

That the rabbit ate a carrot is obvious.

英语逻辑：看到引导词“That”，就立即意识到后面的句子(主谓宾)是从句。

上面是对确定的内容的主语从句，还可以把不确定的内容做主语，同样引导词要放在前面。

Whether/Where/When/How the rabbit ate the carrot is obvious. Who ate the carrot is obvious. What the rabbit ate is obvious.

it 引导的主语从句

有时主语从句较长，导致整句话头重脚轻，如： That the hungry rabbit had already eaten a carrot for dinner this evening is obvious.

这时可以改为形式主语“It”引导的主语从句： It is obvious that the hungry rabbit had already eaten a carrot for dinner this evening.

这里的”it”指代后面整个主语从句。

宾语从句

常常省略引导词 that
- I know (that) the rabbit ate a carrot.
- 只有 that 可以省略，whether/who/what/where/when/how 等都不能省略
- 如果省略 that 可能造成歧义或语法错误，则不能省略
  - I didn’t know that the rabbit ate the carrot and that you saw it.
宾语从句表否定时，否定加在谓语动词前
- I don’t think (that) the rabbit is smart.
宾语从句时态要与主句一致
- 主句是过去时，宾语从句也是过去时
  - 如果宾语从句是现在时，那就产生了”未卜先知”的逻辑矛盾
- I knew (that) the rabbit liked carrots.
- 如果宾语从句中是永恒的事实则可以用一般现在时
- I knew (that) the sun rises in the east.

表语从句

系动词也叫联系动词，如 be 动词(am/is/are)/taste/like 等，它的功能近似于给前后的词画等号
- 例：I am a rabbit. The carrot tastes good.
- 上面的 rabbit/good 都是与主语等价的补充说明的，所以叫主语补语也叫表语

表语从句，就是用从句充当系动词后的表语。看起来就像前面学过的主语从句，把从句移到系动词之后一样。

表语从句：The problem is that the rabbit is hungry.
主语从句：That the rabbit is hungry is a problem.

同位语从句

同位语就是用不同方式把一个概念再说一遍，(前/后)用”,”隔开(不隔开语法会乱)
- My teacher, Papa Rabbit, likes carrots.
- I like my teacher, Papa Rabbit.
- 上面分别是主语和宾语的同位语。
同位语从句常在句中修饰抽象的名词
- The fact that the rabbit ate the carrot did not surprise me.
- 由于已经有了引导词 that，所以无需用”,”隔开
- 注意中文翻译和英文顺序一般相反，抽象词放后边：兔子吃了胡萝卜这个事实并没让我吃惊。

状语从句

状语从句也叫副词从句，一般补充说明动词、形容词、副词等。

由于状语从句相当于副词，所以也叫副词从句
由于状语做补充说明，所以分类较多，分为 9 种：
- 时间副词从句
- 地点副词从句
- 比较副词从句
- 条件副词从句
- 让步副词从句
- 方式副词从句
- 原因副词从句
- 目的副词从句
- 结果副词从句

时间副词从句

在某一时间点之前，从句引导词before
- The rabbit ate a carrot at home before the wolf stopped by.
- 也可以把从句提前：Before the wolf stopped by, the rabbit ate a carrot at home.
在某一时间点之中(当时)，从句引导词：when/while/as
- The rabbit was eating a carrot when I reached home.
- The rabbit was eating a carrot while I was making a video.
- I ate a carrot as I make the video.
- when 强调某个时间点，有”突然”之意
- while 强调一个时间段内
- as 表示同时进行，一边…一边…
在某一时间点之后，引导词：after
- The rabbit ate a carrot after the wolf stopped by.
从之前某一时间点开始算，引导词：since
- The rabbit has shared three carrotes since the wolf stopped by.
- 往往主句用完成时态，自从从句时间点之后主句一直在…(已经完成了 x 次)
直到之后某一时间点，引导词：until
- The rabbit waited until the wolf stopped by.
- 表达像 since 的对立面，从某一时间点算起，直到之后的某一时间点
- until 引导的时间状语从句使用现在/现在完成时表达将来时态
- Due to the poor economy, most of the employees will put off taking a summer vacation until the domestic economy has improved.
一…就…，引导词：ass soon as
下次…，引导词：the next time

地点副词从句

where作引导词
- The rabbit ate the carrot where he found it.
引导词：where 的强调形式：wherever/everywhere/anywhere

比较副词从句

我们常见的一些句子，其实是比较副词从句的省略版本，如：

He is smater (than me/than i am).
This carrot is bigger (than that one/than that one is).
省略的部分用代词宾格是口语用法，正式用法应该是完整从句。
than 是引导词

条件副词从句

if 作为引导词
- If you like this video, you will give it a thumbs-up.
- If you don’t like this video, you will not git it a thumbs-up.
- if 还可以换为only if，意思相同，加强语气
unless 作为引导词，表示”if not”
- 可以直接改写上面第二句： Unless you like this video, you will not give it a thumbs-up.
其他引导词：provided, as long as, in case
条件句总是比主句在时间上落后一个时间段
- If I saw a carrot, I would eat it.
once 引导条件状语从句

让步副词从句

让步副词从句是基于条件副词从句，阐述”相反/相对”的意思。

Even 作为引导词，表示假设
- Even if I see a carrot, I will not eat it.
- 即使我看到了一根胡萝卜，我也不会吃它。
- 这里去掉 “Even”，仍然是一个有效的条件状语从句
Although 作为引导词，表示事实
- Although I see a carrot, I will not eat it.
- 尽管我看到了一根胡萝卜，但我不会吃它。
- 这里 Although 可以用 though/even though 替换
注意，中文里有”虽然…但是…“两个词来表让步，英语中只通过让步副词从句表达，所以主句中不要加”but”
对未知情况让步：no matter + what/who/where/how
- No matter what happens, I will not eat the carrot.
- “no matter”可以用regardless of替换

原因副词从句

because作为引导词
- The rabbit ate the carrot because he was hungry.
since作为引导词
- Since you are hungry, you can eat the carrot.
- 注意这里 Since 是”既然”的意思，不是”自从”
- since 还有”众所周知”的意思
as作为引导词
- As you were not here, we ate the carrot without you.
- 这里 as 是”表原因”，不是”像”
- as 还表示”显而易见”的事实
三者区别：
- 语气严重程度：because > since > as
- 语序差异：
  - because 引导的从句放在主句前后都可以
  - since/as 引导的从句只能放在主句前

结果副词从句

so that作为引导词